A computer is a digital electronic machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations computation automatically. Modern computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks.

A computer system is a “complete” computer that includes the hardwareoperating system main softwareand peripheral equipment needed and used for “full” operation.

This term may also refer to a group of computers that are linked and function together, such microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free a computer network or computer cluster. A broad range of industrial and consumer products use computers as control systems. Microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free special-purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls are included, as are factory devices like industrial robots and computer-aided designas well as general-purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices like smartphones.

Computers power the Internetwhich links billions of other computers and users. Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations. Simple manual instruments like the abacus have aided people in doing calculations since ancient times.

Early in the Industrial Revolutionsome mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century.

The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The first semiconductor transistors in the late s were followed by the silicon -based MOSFET MOS transistor and monolithic integrated circuit IC chip technologies in the late s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the s.

The speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace as predicted by Moore’s lawleading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.

Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free processing elementtypically a central processing unit CPU in the form of a microprocessoralong with some type of computer memorytypically semiconductor memory chips.

The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices keyboards, mice, joysticketc. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved. According to the Oxford English Dictionarythe first known use of computer was in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by the English writer Richard Brathwait : “I haue [ sic ] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.

The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. Microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free the latter part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could frree paid less than their male counterparts.

The Online Etymology Mcirosoft gives the first attested use of computer in the s, meaning ‘one who calculates’; this is an “agent noun from compute v.

The Online Etymology Dictionary states fre the use of the term to mean ” ‘calculating machine’ of any type is from Standad have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi clay spheres, cones, etc.

The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting housea checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.

The Antikythera mechanism is prrofessional to be the earliest known mechanical analog computeraccording to Derek J. It was discovered in in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikytherabetween Kythera and Creteand has been dated to approximately c. Devices of comparable complexity to the Microsoftt mechanism would not reappear until the microzoft century. Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use.

A combination of the ve and dioptrathe astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy.

An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer [9] [10] and gear -wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of IsfahanPersia in The sectorhttp://replace.me/26159.txt calculating instrument used for solving proffessional in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. The slide rule was invented around — by the English clergyman William Oughtred нажмите сюда, shortly after the publication microwoft the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division.

As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Slide microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on перейти aircraft.

In the s, Pierre Jaquet-Droza Swiss watchmakerbuilt a mechanical doll automaton that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically “programmed” to read instructions. In —, microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free and engineer Giovanni Plana microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free a Perpetual Calendar machinewhich, through a microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 that is, 1 BC to ADkeeping track of leap years and varying day length.

The tide-predicting machine invented by the Scottish scientist Sir William Thomson in was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

The differential analysera mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integrationused wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. InSir William Thomson had already discussed the больше информации construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.

The torque amplifier was the advance that ptofessional these machines to work. Starting in the s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers. Charles Babbagean English mechanical engineer and polymathoriginated the concept of a programmable computer.

Considered the ” father microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free the computer “, [17] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century.

After working on his revolutionary difference нажмите чтобы перейтиdesigned to aid in navigational calculations, in he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Enginewas possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cardsa method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such profexsional the Jacquard loom.

For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine projct also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later.

The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unitcontrol flow in the form of conditional branching and loopsand integrated memorymaking it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete. The machine was about a century ahead of its time.

All microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free parts for his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage’s failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.

Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbagecompleted microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free simplified version of the analytical engine’s computing unit the mill in He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers microsft, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.

However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The differential analysera mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free conceptualized in by James Thomsonthe elder brother of the more famous Sir William Microsofft. The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzerbuilt by H.

This built on the mechanical integrators of James 2103 and the torque amplifiers invented by H. A dozen of these devices were micrlsoft before their obsolescence became obvious. By the s, the success of digital electronic computers had proressional the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the s in some specialized applications such as education slide rule and aircraft control systems.

Bythe United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was ptoject Torpedo Data Computerwhich used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at rree moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

Early digital computers were electromechanical ; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.

These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2created by German engineer Konrad Zuse inwas one of the earliest examples of professionla electromechanical relay computer.

InZuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3the world’s first working electromechanical programmablefully automatic digital computer. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers.

Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system used in Charles Babbage ‘s earlier designusing a binary system meant that Zuse’s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. Zuse’s next computer, the Z4became the world’s first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in and delivered to the ETH Zurich. Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog.

The engineer Tommy Flowersworking at the Post Office Research Station in London in the s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment подробнее на этой странице he built in went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.

The German encryption machine, Enigmawas first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which were often run by women. Colossus was the world’s first electronic digital programmable computer. It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete.

Colossus Mark I contained 1, thermionic valves tubesbut Mark II with 2, valves, was ссылка five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.

Like the Colossus, a “program” on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later.

Once a program was written, it had перейти на источник be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.

It combined the high speed of electronics with the основываясь на этих данных to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes. Built under ptoject direction of John Mauchly and J. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using kilowatts of electric power and contained over microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free, vacuum tubes, 1, relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal paper, [42] On Computable Numbers.

 
 

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Open-source software OSS is computer software that is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration , meaning any capable user is able to participate online in development, making the number of possible contributors indefinite.

The ability to examine the code facilitates public trust in the software. Open-source software development can bring in diverse perspectives beyond those of a single company. Open source code can be used for studying and allows capable end users to adapt software to their personal needs in a similar way user scripts and custom style sheets allow for web sites, and eventually publish the modification as a fork for users with similar preferences, and directly submit possible improvements as pull requests.

In the early days of computing, programmers and developers shared software in order to learn from each other and evolve the field of computing. For example, Unix included the operating system source code for users. Eventually, the open-source notion moved to the wayside of commercialization of software in the years — However, academics still often developed software collaboratively.

The paper received significant attention in early , and was one factor in motivating Netscape Communications Corporation to release their popular Netscape Communicator Internet suite as free software.

Netscape’s act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the Free Software Foundation ‘s free software ideas and perceived benefits to the commercial software industry. They concluded that FSF’s social activism was not appealing to companies like Netscape, and looked for a way to rebrand the free software movement to emphasize the business potential of sharing and collaborating on software source code. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February to encourage use of the new term and evangelize open-source principles.

While the Open Source Initiative sought to encourage the use of the new term and evangelize the principles it adhered to, commercial software vendors found themselves increasingly threatened by the concept of freely distributed software and universal access to an application’s source code.

Microsoft executive Jim Allchin publicly stated in that “open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I can’t imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and the intellectual-property business.

IBM, Oracle, Google, and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in today’s competitive open-source market. There has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of FOSS.

The free-software movement was launched in In , a group of individuals advocated that the term free software should be replaced by open-source software OSS as an expression which is less ambiguous [12] [13] [14] and more comfortable for the corporate world.

With open-source software, generally, anyone is allowed to create modifications of it, port it to new operating systems and instruction set architectures , share it with others or, in some cases, market it. Scholars Casson and Ryan have pointed out several policy-based reasons for adoption of open source — in particular, the heightened value proposition from open source when compared to most proprietary formats in the following categories:.

The Open Source Definition presents an open-source philosophy and further defines the terms of use, modification and redistribution of open-source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved by copyright law to the copyright holder.

Several open-source software licenses have qualified within the boundaries of the Open Source Definition. The most prominent and popular example is the GNU General Public License GPL , which “allows free distribution under the condition that further developments and applications are put under the same licence”, thus also free.

The open source label came out of a strategy session held on April 7, , in Palo Alto in reaction to Netscape’s January announcement of a source code release for Navigator as Mozilla.

Many people claimed that the birth of the Internet , since , started the open-source movement, while others do not distinguish between open-source and free software movements. The Free Software Foundation FSF , started in , intended the word “free” to mean freedom to distribute or “free as in free speech” and not freedom from cost or “free as in free beer”. Since a great deal of free software already was and still is free of charge, such free software became associated with zero cost, which seemed anti-commercial.

With at least 20 years of evidence from case histories of closed software development versus open development already provided by the Internet developer community, the OSI presented the “open source” case to commercial businesses, like Netscape. The OSI hoped that the use of the label “open source”, a term suggested by Christine Peterson [7] [20] of the Foresight Institute at the strategy session, would eliminate ambiguity, particularly for individuals who perceive “free software” as anti-commercial.

They sought to bring a higher profile to the practical benefits of freely available source code, and they wanted to bring major software businesses and other high-tech industries into open source.

Perens attempted to register “open source” as a service mark for the OSI, but that attempt was impractical by trademark standards. Meanwhile, due to the presentation of Raymond’s paper to the upper management at Netscape—Raymond only discovered when he read the press release , [21] and was called by Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale ‘s PA later in the day—Netscape released its Navigator source code as open source, with favorable results.

The Open Source Initiative ‘s OSI definition is recognized by several governments internationally [23] as the standard or de facto definition. The definition was based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines , written and adapted primarily by Perens. Under Perens’ definition, open source is a broad software license that makes source code available to the general public with relaxed or non-existent restrictions on the use and modification of the code. It is an explicit “feature” of open source that it puts very few restrictions on the use or distribution by any organization or user, in order to enable the rapid evolution of the software.

Despite initially accepting it, [31] Richard Stallman of the FSF now flatly opposes the term “Open Source” being applied to what they refer to as “free software”. Although he agrees that the two terms describe “almost the same category of software”, Stallman considers equating the terms incorrect and misleading. When an author contributes code to an open-source project e. Some open-source projects do not take contributed code under a license, but actually require joint assignment of the author’s copyright in order to accept code contributions into the project.

The proliferation of open-source licenses is a negative aspect of the open-source movement because it is often difficult to understand the legal implications of the differences between licenses. With more than , open-source projects available and more than unique licenses, the complexity of deciding how to manage open-source use within “closed-source” commercial enterprises has dramatically increased.

In view of this, open-source practitioners are starting to use classification schemes in which FOSS licenses are grouped typically based on the existence and obligations imposed by the copyleft provision; the strength of the copyleft provision. As a result, if end-users violate the licensing conditions, their license disappears, meaning they are infringing copyright.

Certification can help to build user confidence. Certification could be applied to the simplest component, to a whole software system. This project aims to build a desktop interface that every end-user is able to understand and interact with, thus crossing the language and cultural barriers.

The project would improve developing nations’ access to information systems. Raymond suggests a model for developing OSS known as the bazaar model. Raymond likens the development of software by traditional methodologies to building a cathedral, “carefully crafted by individual wizards or small bands of mages working in splendid isolation”. In the traditional model of development, which he called the cathedral model, development takes place in a centralized way.

Roles are clearly defined. Roles include people dedicated to designing the architects , people responsible for managing the project, and people responsible for implementation.

Traditional software engineering follows the cathedral model. The bazaar model, however, is different. In this model, roles are not clearly defined. Gregorio Robles [42] suggests that software developed using the bazaar model should exhibit the following patterns:.

Data suggests, however, that OSS is not quite as democratic as the bazaar model suggests. The average number of authors involved in a project was 5. Open-source software is usually easier to obtain than proprietary software, often resulting in increased use.

Additionally, the availability of an open-source implementation of a standard can increase adoption of that standard. Moreover, lower costs of marketing and logistical services are needed for OSS. It is a good tool to promote a company’s image, including its commercial products. Open-source development offers the potential to quicken innovation and the creation of innovation and social value.

In France for instance, a policy that incentivized government to favor free open-source software increased to nearly , OSS contributions per year, generating social value by increasing the quantity and quality of open-source software.

It is said to be more reliable since it typically has thousands of independent programmers testing and fixing bugs of the software. Open source is not dependent on the company or author that originally created it.

Even if the company fails, the code continues to exist and be developed by its users. Also, it uses open standards accessible to everyone; thus, it does not have the problem of incompatible formats that may exist in proprietary software. It is flexible because modular systems allow programmers to build custom interfaces, or add new abilities to it and it is innovative since open-source programs are the product of collaboration among a large number of different programmers.

The mix of divergent perspectives, corporate objectives, and personal goals speeds up innovation. Moreover, free software can be developed in accordance with purely technical requirements. It does not require thinking about commercial pressure that often degrades the quality of the software. Commercial pressures make traditional software developers pay more attention to customers’ requirements than to security requirements, since such features are somewhat invisible to the customer.

It is sometimes said that the open-source development process may not be well defined and the stages in the development process, such as system testing and documentation may be ignored. However this is only true for small mostly single programmer projects. Larger, successful projects do define and enforce at least some rules as they need them to make the teamwork possible.

Consequently, only technical requirements may be satisfied and not the ones of the market. It depends on control mechanisms in order to create effective performance of autonomous agents who participate in virtual organizations. In OSS development, tools are used to support the development of the product and the development process itself.

Revision control systems such as Concurrent Versions System CVS and later Subversion SVN and Git are examples of tools, often themselves open source, help manage the source code files and the changes to those files for a software project.

Open-source projects are often loosely organized with “little formalised process modelling or support”, but utilities such as issue trackers are often used to organize open-source software development. Tools such as mailing lists and IRC provide means of coordination among developers. New organizations tend to have a more sophisticated governance model and their membership is often formed by legal entity members.

Open Source Software Institute is a membership-based, non-profit c 6 organization established in that promotes the development and implementation of open source software solutions within US Federal, state and local government agencies. OSSI’s efforts have focused on promoting adoption of open-source software programs and policies within Federal Government and Defense and Homeland Security communities.

Open Source for America is a group created to raise awareness in the United States Federal Government about the benefits of open-source software.

Their stated goals are to encourage the government’s use of open source software, participation in open-source software projects, and incorporation of open-source community dynamics to increase government transparency. Companies whose business centers on the development of open-source software employ a variety of business models to solve the challenge of how to make money providing software that is by definition licensed free of charge. Each of these business strategies rests on the premise that users of open-source technologies are willing to purchase additional software features under proprietary licenses, or purchase other services or elements of value that complement the open-source software that is core to the business.

This additional value can be, but not limited to, enterprise-grade features and up-time guarantees often via a service-level agreement to satisfy business or compliance requirements, performance and efficiency gains by features not yet available in the open source version, legal protection e.

The debate over open source vs. The top four reasons as provided by Open Source Business Conference survey [64] individuals or organizations choose open-source software are:. Since innovative companies no longer rely heavily on software sales, proprietary software has become less of a necessity. Further, companies like Novell who traditionally sold software the old-fashioned way continually debate the benefits of switching to open-source availability, having already switched part of the product offering to open source code.

With this market shift, more critical systems are beginning to rely on open-source offerings, [69] allowing greater funding such as US Department of Homeland Security grants [69] to help “hunt for security bugs.

 

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The Resource Engagements feature let a user systematically request a resource. Post a Comment. The second set of versions that we are going to cover are the Online versions. Get it as soon as Monday, Aug Your daily dose of tech news, in brief. Previous page. With Project Professional you will get regular features, security updates, help from the Microsoft Community , and much more.

 
 

Microsoft project 2013 standard vs professional free.Microsoft Office

 
 
Swedish Sweden. Turkish Turkey. To clarify, here is a diagram that Darin Brazile worked up to represent how it works: The second set of versions that we are going to cover are the Online versions. However, there are a couple of options if you want to use Project Professional. Go to Office. Portuguese Portugal.